Economics of irrigation development in Africa

Approximately 85% of Africa’s poor inhabitants live in rural areas, relying on agriculture to make a living [You et al,2010]. Despite the highly variable and uneven rainfall, most of the continent depends on rain-fed cultivation. It is estimated that if more irrigation schemes are implemented, there is potential to boost agricultural productivity by 50%. Currently, just over 13 million hectares of land is equipped for irrigation farming. This accounts for only 6% of the total cultivated area, compared to 14% in Latin America and 37% in Asia. 4% of Sub-Saharan Africa is irrigated, suggesting there is scope for expansion in this area [You et al,2010]. Although this figure is higher in Northern Africa at 28%, Northern Africa has exhausted its potential for further development by using unsustainable methods of irrigation. Examples of this include, Libya and Egypt where water is withdrawn from the ground and from the River Nile, respectively.

The investment into irrigation systems for African countries is dependent upon numerous factors, such as hydrology, agro economics, geography and economic factors. These vary accordingly for each country thus, making it difficult to compare the costs directly. Identifying locations that are optimal for irrigation as well as incorporating the cost of water delivery can present complex engineering and hydrological tasks. In urban areas where resources are more readily available, this may be less of an issue, however, in rural areas where there is a lack of infrastructure, farmers must adapt their style of irrigation to low-cost, low maintenance methods to ensure profit is made. This may also require the interference of external organisations.

Despite popular belief that irrigation will increase productivity, research by [Biswas,1987], suggested that the cost of implanting irrigation techniques is greater in Africa compared to other regions of the world. In general, if the investment cost is greater than $4500 per hectare or $6000 per hectare for staple crops and cereal crops, respectively, the economic returns from their production will not be sufficient to justify the costs incurred. This stands true even when the efficiency of the systems is at a maximum. Figure 1 shows the different types of irrigation projects that were undertaken in various parts of Africa. From this, it is evident that different countries require different irrigation systems implemented. Moreover, the cost of a similar project in one country may be significantly different in another country. For example, the full water control project in Lake Alaotra, Madagascar was $894 per hectare unlike Senegal, where it was $4173 per hectare.  As this research was done 32 years ago, this may not be the case at present however, it provides an idea of considerations that must be taken in place before starting a project.

Overall, increasing agricultural productivities are key to reducing poverty by 2030, enabling African countries to reach the Sustainable Development Goals set by the United Nations. In my next blog post, I hope to explore some of the irrigation methods used by African countries and analyse the benefits and costs of each.

Figure 1 shows the costs of certain irrigation projects conducted in Africa between 1970 and 1985. [Source]

Virtual water - What is it?

Whilst researching water and food in Africa for my last blog post, I came across the concept of virtual water in several papers. As this is a new idea to me, I have decided to write a post on my findings upon further research.

A country’s economy can be either open or closed. A closed economy is self-sufficient, with no trading activity with other economies. In contrast to this, an open economy readily participates in international trading to meet the country’s needs and development goals. This means that a country can import resources that are scarcely available and export commodities that are in abundance.

The African Union’s Agenda 2063 and the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development go hand-in-hand to ‘build a prosperous and united Africa’ [SDGC in Africa]. Countries such as South Africa and Zimbabwe have arid climates and are therefore increasingly water-stressed. This threatens the food security of these countries as water availability and food production are intrinsically tied. In such regions, food self-sufficiency may not be achieved, resulting in the need for imports.

As importing real water is not feasible due to the vast infrastructure required and distance between countries, the idea of virtual water was introduced. In simple terms, virtual water is the total amount of water required in the production of a product or service. It is termed ‘virtual water’ as the water is not necessarily found within the final product.

A country experiencing water scarcity can thus, import water-intensive products, saving water that would have originally been used in its production. This may enable a nation to achieve water security in the future. Hoekstra and Hung calculated in their research that the global volume of crop-related international water trade between 1995 and 1999 was 695 Gm³ yr^-1 [Hoekstra and Hung, 2005]. From this, they were able to estimate that 13% of the water used in the production of crops was for export.

African agriculture is vulnerable to the extreme spatial variation of rainfall, making it difficult for farmers to obtain consistent crop yields. Moreover, areas such as South Africa has an average rainfall of 451mm per year which is lower than the minimum rainfall of 500mm per year. This puts South Africa in the ‘water-stressed’ category and implies that agricultural yields will be unsuccessful.

It was also estimated that rain-fed crop yields will decrease by 50%, resulting in some African countries spending 5-10% of their GDP to adapt to these effects of climate change [Konar and Caylor]. Furthermore, the International Panel on Climate Change states that even in the absence of climate change, the current population trends of water usage indicate that more African countries will surpass the limits of their economically usable, land-based water resources before 2025 [Climate Change 2007].This highlights the need for African countries to partake in international virtual water trade to reduce the potential risk of water scarcity.

Figure 1 - shows the African trade network for virtual water. Each nation is assigned a specific colour with trade links being in the colour of the exporting nation. [Source]

Africa trades products both, internally and internationally. Research shows that the trade network within Africa is greater than the trade connections between Africa and the rest of the world. For example, the volume of virtual water traded is 3.59km³ and 1.18km³ within African countries and to the rest of the world, respectively.

Figure 1 is a visual representation of the internal African trade network. It is evident from figure 1 that South Africa is a major exporter, trading 1.12km³ of virtual water to other African nations. Most of South Africa’s produces are supplied to Zimbabwe as shown by the thickness of trade link. This is different from data collected between 1995 and 1999, where Zimbabwe had net export and South Africa had net import [Hoekstra and Hung, 2005]. The reasons for such changes may be due to economic development and political changes.

In conclusion, I think the concept of virtual water is beneficial to many countries within Africa as water-intensive products can be imported, allowing the use of the remaining water elsewhere. For example, statistics show that one tonne of wheat imported represents 1300 tonnes of water [Kreith, 1991]. The trading of virtual water, internationally and within the continent will aid the African nations to achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goals, such as the sixth goal, to ‘ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all’ [UN SDG]. In addition to this, the flow of virtual water, in the form of grain imports into the Middle Eastern region of Africa was calculated to be equivalent to the annual flow of the River Nile. This averts conflict between nations as water insufficiency has been an issue since 1970.

Introduction

Welcome to my first blog post! In this blog, I will be exploring the relationship between water and food with a specific focus on African countries. As someone with very minimal knowledge on this particular topic, I think this blog journey will allow me to deepen my understanding of the various issues associated with water and food.

Why Water and Food?

Water is an essential natural resource required to sustain life on Earth. It can be considered as a finite resource that is intrinsically linked to many sectors of society. The development of a country is dependent upon the availability and quality of water therefore, it can be said that water inhibits and sets boundaries to the extent of development that can occur in a given area.

Although 71 per cent of the Earth’s surface is covered with water, only 0.3 per cent of Earth’s water is available for human use. According to the National Groundwater Association (NGWA), approximately 321 billion gallons of surface water and 77 billion gallons of groundwater was consumed in the United States, per day. [1] The use of water by humans varies greatly from country to country. This is determined by a country’s development and climate. For example, in 2015, thermoelectric power was the largest consumer of water in the United States [2] whereas, in Mozambique, it was agriculture.

            In 1798, Malthus developed the Malthusian theory of population growth. This theory stated that the world’s population will grow exponentially whilst food production will only increase arithmetically, resulting in populations outgrowing their resources, leading to famine, disease and poor living. Figure 1 below, shows Malthus' theory on the relationship between population and resources in a graphical manner. In order to meet the world’s food demands by 2050, agricultural yields must double which will require global water-management policies and strategies to be changed, drastically. [3] This is because agriculture consumes 70 per cent of freshwater, globally with this figure increasing to 90 per cent in African countries.

Figure 1 shows the Malthusian theory of population growth. The red line represents the exponential population growth whilst the black line represents the resources available that increases linearly. The 'point of crisis' highlighted in the graph shows the point at which the population outgrows its resources. [6]

Why Africa?

50 per cent of the inhabitants in Sub-Saharan Africa lives in extreme poverty with one fifth facing grave water shortages. [3] The population of Sub-Saharan Africa is projected to rise to 2.5 billion by 2050. This disproportionate growth will equate to 25 per cent of the global population, meaning increased stress will be placed on the continents water resources. Due to Africa’s geographical positioning, the climate in the north and northeast of the continent are best for crop irrigation, resulting in only 6 countries from this region accounting for 70 per cent of all irrigated land in the continent. [4] Countries found in the Horn of Africa and in the Sahel region have no surface water available as there is no surface runoff. This means rain-fed production is not a viable option for the inhabitants of these areas. Nambia and Botswana in Sub-Saharan Africa have evapotranspiration values as high as 3700mm per year. This is 2500mm higher than the global average of 1200mm per year and has a significant impact on the soil moisture availability of the area. [5] Farmers of each nation must take into consideration the best crop to plant for their given climate and environmental conditions, risking starvation to have a chance of getting one successful harvest.

I hope this first blog post gives a basic understanding of why I think water and food is an interesting and an important topic to address.

Over the next few months, I hope to gain a deeper and more detailed understanding of the issues regarding both water and food Africa.